Religion and Environmental Ethics

RELS5149 Religion and Envirnomental Ethics Student#1155012742 – Li Wai Tat, Victor Does Christianity have a â€Å"Burden of Guilt† in our Ecological Crisis? Introduction and Methods In 1967, Lynn White Jr. , published a paper in Science (Vol 155, 1967, pp 1203-1207) â€Å"The Historical Roots of Our Ecological Crisis†, which was to become a seminal work on the relationship of Ecology and Christianity and had since then provoked enumerous debates on the topic.In the paper he wrote â€Å"Christianity bears a huge burden of guilt† and concludes that â€Å"Hence we shall continue to have a worsening ecologic crisis until we reject the Christian axiom that nature has no reason for existence save to serve man. † White depicted Western Christianity as seeing the world existing primarily for the benefit of man, and man, bearing God's image and sharing in great measure God's transcendence of nature, exploit nature for his proper ends according to God's will. This thesis of White shall be referred to as â€Å"Dominion Hypothesis† for ease of identification in this paper. But are the claims in his Dominion Hypothesis valid? Does Christianity bear a burden of guilt for the ecological crisis of the world? The purpose of this paper is to assess the strength of his thesis by firstly analysing what the biblical scriptures and theologians have to say with regard to the relationship of God, man and the environment.Next the symptoms and origins of our ecological crisis are examined, after which their ties with Western Christianity are assessed to determine whether the later has causal relationship with the former. Finally, after arriving at the conclusion, some recommendations are presented. 1 White's Thesis White's thesis can briefly be summarized as: â€Å"All forms of life modify their contexts, and the human race has in one sense simply done this more than others. However, the human impact on the environment, whilst frequently detrime ntal in the past, was given an added impetus by Christianity in its Westernized form.Western society, as a product of Westernized Christianity, inherits an exploitative attitude to the natural world which is the key to our present ecological crisis. † (Richardson, 1998) . White depicted Western Christianity as seeing the world existing primarily for the benefit of man, and it is according to God's will that man exploit nature for his proper ends. Biblical verses that align to the Dominion Hypothesis Arguably the following passages from the Bible are aligned to the Dominion Hypothesis and are most frequently cited by ecology critics of the Bible. Then God said, ‘Let us make man in our image, after our likeness; and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the birds of trhe air, and over the the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping thinng that creeps upon the earth' So god created man in his own image, in the image of God he created him; male and female he created them. And God blessed them, and God said to them ‘Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth and subdue it; and have dominion over the fish of the sea and over every living thing that moves upon the earth. And God said, ‘Behold, I have given you every plant yielding seed which is upon the face of all the earth, and every tree with seed in its fruit; you shall have them for food. ‘ † (Gen. 1:26-29) â€Å"Yet thou has made him little less than God, and dost crown him with glory and honor. Thous hast given him dominion over the works of thy hands; thous hast put all things under his feet; all sheep and oxen, and also the beasts of the field, the birds of the air, and the fish of the sea, whatever passes along the paths of the sea. † (Ps. 8:5-8) 2 And God blessed Noah and his sons, and said to them, ‘Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth. The fear of you and the dread of you shall be upon every beast of the earth, and upon every bird of the air, upon everything that creeps on the ground and all the fish of the sea; into your hand they are delivered. Every moving thing that lives shall be food for you; and as I gave you the green plants, I give you everything. † (Gen. 9:1-3) â€Å"You have made them to be a kingdom and priests serving our God, and they will reign on earth† (Rev. 5:10).According to exegeses by theology scholar (Hiebert, 1996), â€Å"the term ‘dominion,' from the Hebrew verb â€Å"radah†, implies that it grants humans the right and responsibility to rule, to govern the rest of creation. It connotes a hierarchy of power and authority in which the human race is positioned above the rest of the natural world, although the verb radah does not itself define how this dominion is to be exercised, whether benevolently or malevolently. The laws of Leviticus, when they stipulate that household servants are not to be *ruled* harshly (Lev. 25:43, 46, 53), imply t hat this kind of dominion may be kind and humane.Yet the use of radah in the context of international relations, where it is more commonly employed, carries a decidedly more antagonistic tinge, since it signifies rule over one*s enemies. It occurs frequently in descriptions of military conquest, where it is paired with such verbs as *destroy* (Num. 24:19) and *strike down* (Lev. 26:17; Isa. 14:6). When used of the Israelite king, radah always refers to dominion over his enemies, not to rule over his own Israelite subjects, for which the verb malak, *reign,* is the usual term. Similar conclusions may be drawn about the phrase *subdue the earth* in Gen. :28. The verb *subdue,* from the Hebrew kavash, depicts a hierarchical relationship in which humans are positioned above the earth and are granted power and control over it. The verb kavash is even more forceful than radah, describing the actual act of subjugation, of forcing another into a subordinate position. It is used for military conquest, where the same phrase used in Gen. 1:28, *subdue the earth/land,* can be employed to depict the destruction and occupation of conquered territory (Num. 32:22, 29). It is also used of the king*s forcing his people into slavery against God*s wishes (Jer. 4:11, 16), and of rape (Esther 7:8; Neh. 5:5). In many of these cases, the abuse {19} of power is patently obvious. † 3 Biblical verses that align to the Eco-Friendly perspective On the other hand, the following verses can be interpreted as being aligned to an EcoFriendly view:†Let the heavens be glad, and let the earth rejoice; let the sea roar, and all that fills it; let the field exult, and everything in it! Then shall all the trees of the forest sing for joy before the LORD, for he comes, for he comes to judge the earth. He will judge the world in righteousness, and the peoples in his faithfulness. (Psalm 96:11-13) â€Å"Praise the LORD! Praise the LORD from the heavens; praise him in the heights! Praise hi m, all his angels; praise him, all his hosts! Praise him, sun and moon, praise him, all you shining stars! Praise him, you highest heavens, and you waters above the heavens! Let them praise the name of the LORD! For he commanded and they were created. And he established them forever and ever; he gave a decree, and it shall not pass away. a Praise the LORD from the earth, you great sea creatures and all deeps, fire and hail, snow and mist, stormy wind fulfilling his word! Mountains and all hills, fruit trees and all cedars! Beasts and all livestock, creeping things and flying birds! Kings of the earth and all peoples, princes and all rulers of the earth! Young men and maidens together, old men and children! Let them praise the name of the LORD, for his name alone is exalted; his majesty is above earth and heaven. † (Psalm 148:1-13) *When you besiege a city a long time, to make war against it in order to capture it, you shall not destroy its trees by swinging an axe against them ; for you may eat from them, and you shall not cut them down.For is the tree of the field a man, that it should [m]be besieged by you? Only the trees which you known are not fruit trees you shall destroy and cut down, that you may construct siegeworks against the city that is making war with you until it falls. † (Deuteronomy 20:19-20) *When you enter the land and plant any kind of fruit tree, regard its fruit as forbidden. For three years you are to consider it forbidden; it must not be eaten. In the fourth year all its fruit will be holy, an offering of praise to the Lord. But in the fifth year you may eat its fruit.In this way your harvest will be increased. I am the Lord your God. † (Leviticus 19:2325) â€Å"You shall not let your cattle breed with a different kind; you shall not sow your field with two kinds of seed; nor shall there come upon you a garment of cloth made of two kinds of stuff. † (Leviticus 19:19) â€Å"For six years you shall sow your land an d gather in its yield; but the seventh year you shall let it rest and lie fallow, that the poor of your people may eat; and what they leave the wild beasts may eat. † (Exodus 23: 10-11) 5 â€Å"The nations were angry, and your wrath has come.The time has come for judging the dead, and for rewarding your servants the prophets and your people who revere your name, both great and small * and for destroying those who destroy the earth. * (Rev 11:18) â€Å"For true and righteous are his judgments: for he hath judged the great whore, which did corrupt the earth with her fornication, and hath avenged the blood of his servants at her hand. † (Rev 19:2) â€Å"They will neither harm nor destroy on all my holy mountain, for the earth will be filled with the knowledge of the Lord as the waters cover the sea. (Isaiah 11:9) â€Å"The wolf and the lamb will feed together, and the lion will eat straw like the ox, but dust will be the serpent's food. They will neither harm nor destro y on all my holy mountain,† says the LORD. † (Isaiah 65:25) Theology scholars commenting on this view of nature of the Old Testament wrote : â€Å"†¦ It is therefore fair to conclude that nature is far from ‘de-animated' in Biblical thought. † (Wybrow, 1990), â€Å"The natural world may not be seen as sacred or divine in the Bible, but it is certainly not dead, lifeless, and outside the divine moral framework†¦ here are no scriptures suggesting that nature was viewed as dead matter to be manipulated by man.. † (Kinsley, 1995). Referring to the theme of the kingdom of God running through the New Testament, Zerbe (1992) argues that the New Testament has significant ecological implications, he explained: â€Å"Isaiah*s vision of restored humanity and nature climaxes with the statement that there will no longer be any hurt or destruction in creation (Isa. 11:9; 65:25). And John*s vision of judgment states that those who destroy the earth will t hemselves be destroyed (Rev. 11:18; 19:2).It is noteworthy that the prophetic critique of Rome in Rev. 17:1-19:4 closely connects greed and the earth*s destruction: the insatiable desire for consumption and wealth is what results in the destruction of people and the earth. † The corresponding passages are as quoted above. 6 Alternative view: Dominion Theology in Genesis 1 vs. Dependence Theology in Genesis 2 And lastly, but most importantly, consider the following two verses, both from Genesis 2:†Then the Lord God formed a man from the dust of the ground and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and the man became a living being. (Genesis 2:7) â€Å"The Lord God took the man and put him in the Garden of Eden to work it and take care of it. † (Genesis 2:15) What is very important to the discussion in this paper is that according to Hiebert (1996), as evident in the above verses, Genesis 2 presents an alternative to the dominion theology of Genesis 1, which he calls dependence theology. His thesis being that the first human is made of the same arable soil as are all of other forms of life; and the divine breath into which his nostrils blown is the same with which all the animals live and breathe (Gen. :7; 7:22). The role of the human in the earth described is not that of mastery but of servanthood. In this account of creation, the theology of the human place in creation is not a theology of dominion but a theology of dependence (Hiebert, 1996). This theology is evident in other parts of Scripture, examples including Psalm 104 and the Book of Job (McKibben,1994). According to Hiebert: â€Å"†¦ In this tradition (Genesis 2), the human being is positioned very differently within the world of nature.Here the archetypal human is made not in the image of God but out of topsoil, out of the arable land that was cultivated by Israelite farmers (Gen. 2:7). As a result of this kind of creation, humans hold no distinctive position among liv ing beings, since plants and animals also were produced from this same arable soil (2:9, 19). Moreover, the role assigned humans within creation in this story is not to rule (radah) and to subdue (kavash) but rather to {23} *serve* (avad; Gen. 2:15; 3:23). The Hebrew term avad is properly translated *till* in these verses (NRSV), since it clearly refers to the cultivation of arable land.But avad is in fact the ordinary Hebrew verb *serve,* used of slaves serving masters and of humans serving God (Gen. 12:16; Exod. 4:23). â€Å", the conflicts of Genesis I and Genesis 2 notwithstanding, there are lots of thesis arguing that there is no inconsistency between the two chapters and the ouvert differences are due to different ways in recapitulation only . (Young, 1960),(Archer, 1964),(Kitchen,1966) On another plane of our discussion, we shall now turn to a brief discussion of the historical origins of our ecological crisis. 7 The Historical Origins of our Ecological CrisisThere is genera l consensus that the planet earth is heading towards environmental catastrophe due to alarming development at different fronts: the green house effect, acid rain, damage to ozone layer, deforestation, loss of biodiversity, chemical pollution, freshwater shortage, etc. , amongst others. (Magdoff & Foster, 2011).. But how did all these pollutions started? according to Thorsheim (2006), in his book â€Å"The Invention of Pollution†, it all started with the use of fossil energy, which was conducive to the Industrial Revolution.The first largescale commercial use of fossil energy was coal in Britain in the 1800's, which he referred to as a â€Å"Faustian bargain† for Britain, since on the one hand it helped to bring tremendous wealth, advance and power to the country, whilst on the other coal also filled the air with immense smoke and acidic vapors, which was one of the origins of what we now call the â€Å"green house effect† and â€Å"acid rain†. Fossil oil as energy had also been popularized ever since Edwin L. Drake drilled the first oil well in 1853, but the impact on the environment is equally as detrimental as Coal, if not more so.The fossil energy application was conducive to the Industrial Revolution, and the Industrial Revolution had led to the advance in comfort, convenience and enjoyment, from dwelling comfort to transport convenience to material needs, leading to the abundance and later overabundance in supply of products. Consumerism in the past decades had eventually been invented in order to â€Å"help† us to recognize our needs, and due to the needs for growth of enterprises, some products have also began to be designed with â€Å"built-in obsolescence†.All these initiatives had contributed to the generation of ever more wastes than in the centuries before the industrial revolution, much more than can be â€Å"sinked† by the earth, which contributed to the chemical pollution of soil, water, which has also altered the bio-diversity of the Earth. 8 Ever since the Industrial Revolution, the consumption of energy has experienced exponential growth (see figure 1. 1). Concomitantly, different kind of detrimental impacts had been inflicted upon the ecology of the earth (see figure 1. 2).As an in-depth analysis of our ecological crisis is out of the scope of this paper, focus is now centred on the â€Å"origin† of the crisis, viz. the advent of fossil energy application, which shall be discussed below. Some key developments relating to fossil energy application:1665 Invention of the first modern industrial steam engine by English inventor Edward Somerset which can use wood or coal as fuel 1794 First produce of Coal Gas by William Murdoch 1853 First refinement of Kerosene by Abraham Gesner 1859 Drilling of first Oil Well by Edwin Drake 1859 Building of the first practical self-combustion engine by Etienne Lenoir Religious Background of the Inventors / Innovators Astonishingly, wh at the above key developments have in common, according to research by the author, is that all the inventors / innovators were Judeao-Christian in religious belief, as can be listed below according to extant data. Inventor/Innovator Place of Birth Religion Edward Somerset (1601-67) Monmouthshire, Britain Roman Catholic William Murdoch (1754 – 1839) Cumnock, Scotland Roman Catholic Abraham Gesner (1797-1864) Nova Scotia, Canada Protestant Christian Edwin Drake (1819-1880) New York, U. S. A. Jewish Jean-Joseph-Etienne Lenoir (1822-1900)Mussy-la-Ville, Belgium Roman Catholic However, just as one cannot say that the inventions or innovations in fossil energy application has been due to Western Christianity, as otherwise one will fall into the â€Å"post-hoc ergo procter hoc† fallacy, it is likewise not valid to attribute the ecological crisis directly to Western Christianity. However, If we put the question conversely by asking that if the inventors/innovators were panthei stic, believing that the nature is sacred in itself and should be reverred, then it is highly unlikely that the inventions/innnovations had been conjured and accomplished by them.Science and Christianity It has been argued that science and christianity are coherent to each other, A British Scientist, Robert Clark, once said â€Å"†¦ we may interpret the fact scientific development has only occurred in a Christian culture. The ancients had brains as good as ours. In all civilizations, Babylonia, Egypt, Greece, India, Rome, Persia, China and so on, science developed to a certain point and then stopped. It is easy to argue speculatively that science might have been able to develop in the absence of Christianity, but in fact, it never did. And no wonder.For the non*Christian world felt there was something ethically wrong about science. In Greece, this conviction was enshrined in the legend of Prometheus, the fire*bearer and prototype scientist who stole fire from heaven thus incur ring the wrath of the Gods. † 10 Consider also these statements from renowned scientists; William Thomson: â€Å"Do not be afraid to be free thinkers. If you think strongly enough, you will be forced by science to the belief in God. † Isaac Newton: â€Å"This most beautiful system of the sun, planets and comets could only proceed from the counsel and dominion of an intelligent and powerful Being†¦ , Stephen Hawking:†In fact, if one considers the possible constants and laws that could have emerged, the odds against a universe that produced life like ours are immense. † Conclusion This paper has attempted to examine the hypothesis of Lynn White's that Christianity bears significant responsibility for the earth's ecological crisis. The author has attempted to typologize and quote verses from the scriptures, exegeses and writings of theologians on the Biblical scriptures depicting the relationship of God, man and nature.Whilst according to the Dominion the ological perspective as discussed above, the hierarchal relationship of God->Man->Nature (see figure 1. 3) is apparent, in the Dependence theological perspective, the hierarchal relationship of God->Man ; God -> Nature (see figure 1. 4) is also evident. God God Man Man Nature Nature Figure 1. 3 The Dominion Perspective Figure 1. 4 The Dependence Perspective Other verses as listed under the section â€Å"Passages that echo Eco-Friendly† also act as a counter-argument for the Dominion hypothesis.It would seem therefore that White's hypothesis that â€Å"†¦ Western Christianity sees the world existing primarily for the benefit of man† and therefore â€Å"Christianity bears a huge burden of guilt† is not grounded solidly, because as mentioned above, there are many verses which encourage man to be benign to our environment, and conversely, there is no single passage asking man to abuse nature for his primarily benefit only. However, if White argued that â€Å"C hristians bears a burden of guilt†, then it is less reputable, as explained in the next paragraph. 11If one concurs that scientific thinking is coherent to Christian belief, as discussed above, and like White argues in his paper, Western Christianity has been contributory in promoting modern science and technological advance, and from the standpoint of the analysing of advent of fossil energy as the origin of our ecological crisis, which does have tremendous detrimental impacts to our environment, it seems evident that Christians do have a direct linkage to the inventions and innovations leading to the mass scale use of fossil energy, the detrimental origin to our ecological system. RecommendationsIt can be said that with subtlety in the Biblical scriptures, interpretations are often contingent upon the context and the wisdom of the readers, as inspired at different times. What can be said is that given the state of development before the advent of sciences, man had been under the perpetual threats of nature, from attacks by animals, storms, sickness to famines and other disasters. The Dominion theological perspective no doubt inspired man to develop creative thinking about mastering the nature for the betterment of his lifelihood and survival, lacking which man might still be living rather primitively.The advent of sciences and most notably the Industrial Revolution can be depicted as the epitome of this mentality. As our civilization, technology and wisdom progresses, we should now be in a position to recognize that a Dominion mentality to the nature is detrimental to our environment and it is time that we revisit the scriptures to investigate whether we have overlooked an alternative theology in the Bible for seeing our relationship with nature-the Dependence approach, treating the nature as equals of ours, in which we serve god to ensure its goodness, and ensuring its long term sustainability to prepare for the â€Å"Kingdom of God†. 2 Bibliog raphy Lynne White Jr (1967), ‘The Historical Roots of Our Ecological Crisis', reproduced in John Barr (ed), The Environmental Handbook (London: Ballantine/Friends of the Earth, 1971) pp 3-16. David Kinsley, Ecology and Religion: Ecological Spirituality in Cross-Cultural Perspective (Englewood Cliffs, N. J. : Prentice Hall, 1995) Richard Cameron Wybrow â€Å"The Bible, Baconism, and Mastery over Nature: The Old Testament and Its Moderrn Misreading† (Ph.D disserrtation, McMaster University, Hamillton Ont. Canada, 1990) p. 206 Theodore Hiebert, Professor of Old Testament at McCormick Theological Seminary, Chicago, Illinois. , Direction (Winnipeg, MB), 1996 Gordon Zerbe, Assistant Professor of New Testament at Canadian Mennonite Bible College, Winnipeg, Manitoba. , Direction (Winnipeg, MB), 1992 Howard Snyder, Liberating the Church: The Ecology of Church and Kingdom (Downers Grove: Inter-Varsity Press, 1983) 45-51.Young, Edward J. (1960) An Introduction to the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Co. ). Archer, Gleason (1964), A Survey of Old Testament Introduction (Chicago: Moody Press). Kitchen, Kenneth (1966), Ancient Orient and Old Testament (London: Tyndale Press). Thorsheim, Peter (2006), Inventing Pollution: Coal, Smoke and Culture in Britain since 1800 13

Game: Online Games Online Essay

Nowadays, online games are famous. People prefer to play online games during their leisure time. They are attracted by high resolution of graphic, story plots, and accessibility of the games. These features would definitely amuse them. But, there are lots of disadvantages of online games. Playing online games is a waste if time, You may say, â€Å"Playing online games is an entertainment. † Yes, I agree with you, but, most of the online gamers would spend a plenty of time in playing online games. Sometime, they are playing the games while they are working. They are wasting their time, aren’t they? Their productivity would decrease. Some students may skip their class and go to cybercafe to play online games too. They are supposed to go to school, but they don’t do so. They waste their money to play online games. Most online games are free to be played. But, gamers could buy virtual equipments and items that only can be used in the games. Their characters in the games would be stronger with these items. Beside that, if they play online games in cybercafe, they have to pay the charge for internet services. Playing online games may harm your health. According to an investigation, more and more teenagers have short-sightedness. It is the consequence of playing online games for a long time. In addition, it is also very harmful to your backbones. Online games are harmful to brain development, cause children neglect reading, and encourage violent behaviour. Health is wealth. We mustn’t play online games for long time to avoid health problems. Online gamers would have less time to communicate with friends and family members. Even though some online games allow you to chat with other gamers, it is simply not the same as we communicate with others when we are doing sport activities. Gamers may have anti-social behaviour. In conclusion, online games can alter the way people spend their leisure time positively or negatively. The gamers ought to have enough self control. Being fully aware of the benefits and drawbacks of online games, the gamers can maximize their advantages and avoid the addiction. 1. The Disadvantages of Playing Online Games Thanks for the Internet’s help; people can deal with things much more efficiently. For instance, sending E-mail to other countries for business, auctioning off anything which they do not need anymore, and searching for the information, and so on. There are too many functions of the Internet to count clearly at a time. However, there is one of the functions of the Internet—–Playing online games. I believe that most people have played them, especially children or teenagers. They enjoy playing online games very much. Online games offer not only entertainment but also visual effect. Most parents object their children to play online games, because they are afraid that children will be addicted to it. Actually yes, being addicted to online games may cause many terrible things. The first one, it will affect your learning attitude. Once you played overhead, you would have to skip the class or be unable to concentrate on your studies. Second, it may affect your relationship. At this time, the relationship between you and your family or friends must get worse. You do not have the same topics o chat with each other. Third, the most important one, it may harm your health. According to investigation, there are more and more teenagers wearing glasses. It is the consequence of playing online games for a very long time. Besides, it is also very harmful for your backbones. Seriously, it can cause many terrible diseases. As a result, it is important to control the time on playing online games. 2. Disadvantages of Online Games †Online games offer not only entertainment but also visual effect. Most parents object their children to play online games, because they are afraid that children will be addicted to it. Actually yes, being addicted to online games may cause many terrible things. The first one, it will affect your learning attitude. Once you played overhead, you would have to skip the class or be unable to concentrate on your studies. Second, it may affect your relationship. At this time, the relationship between you and your family or friends must get worse. You do not have the same topics o chat with each other. Third, the most important one, it may harm your health. According to investigation, there are more and more teenagers wearing glasses. It is the consequence of playing online games for a very long time. Besides, it is also very harmful for your backbones. Seriously, it can cause many terrible diseases. As a result, it is important to control the time on playing online games. † Source: http://isayenglish. blogspot.com/2010/01/disadvantages-of-playing-online-games. html Disadvantages of online educational games are: Students can become brainwashed, causing severe memory loss and students can become too reliant or addicted to online learning and not seek other sources for learning/study. Disadvantages of recreational online games are: brainwash children with result in severe memory loss and an addiction to these games can cause bad health for children, causing laziness and poor eyesight. They often contain or encourage a lot of violence in their games, especially if they are free online recreational games. 3. http://www. teach-ict. com/gcse_new/entertainment/games/miniweb/pg8. htm 4. The Advantages and Disadvantages of Online Gaming You don’t need me to tell you that the Internet is expanding all the time, giving users more and more information, resources and entertainment than ever before and it’s only ever going to get bigger. Thanks to this constant development, the gaming industry is able to spread its wings away from the traditional platforms – consoles and handheld computers – even those confined to history like the GameBoy – and reach new audiences around the world via the net. Many of the sites offering the chance to play game over the web require very little input from the user in terms of finance or registration, meaning you could be playing in a matter of moments. Sure, you might have to pay a small sum for access to the more recent releases or for access to gambling sites but there are still plenty of sites that offer free gaming experiences. So we all understand that the Internet offers users a wide variety of opportunities to play games, right? Cool, in that case it makes sense to discuss a few of the advantages and disadvantages of online gaming. You might be set in your ways as a PlayStation fan who loves a shoot-em up, or you might be just finding your feet on the web playing a classic game and looking to broaden your horizons. Here are three of each to help you decide whether or not you make the move online: Advantages The first major advantage to any game that utilizes the Internet – either played on a PC or Mac, or using a tablet or smartphone – is that they are regularly refreshed and updated, with any bugs fixed quickly. As any gamer who uses â€Å"apps† on their phone or tablet will know, there are always new updates being released and this can help you to play more levels or play more smoothly. With a console, however, you can only play the game you’ve bought in whatever condition and once you reach the end, that’s the end! Online the possibilities are endless. Also, PCs and Macs are known for their high quality displays making for a much better gaming experience. Playing any game – no matter how new or how good – on a television hooked up to a console is dependent entirely on the quality of the television. But with computer monitors, you get much higher resolutions than the majority of household or bedroom televisions. You also get the variety of genres online. With a console game that you have to pay for in-store, you never really know what you’re getting until you get it out and play and you may realise it’s not for you. Disaster. Playing online, however, if you don’t like the game you’re on you just close the window and find another game, genre or site until you find one. It also offers you the chance to try new games – especially on free sites – that you may not have considered for the console. Disadvantages Unfortunately some of the most high-end gaming computers are very expensive and out of the price range of many gamers. Unless you have the money to spend, you may have to resort to using a standard PC and upgrade where possible. The size of the processor or your broadband connection may also cause you several issues relating to your gaming experience. If you live in a rural area, for instance, you might find that your Internet speed is very slow meaning that the gameplay isn’t as smooth as it could be; and the size of your processor could also play havoc with the speed causing the game to buffer. As technology advances and your passion for gaming grows, however, you could look into better processors or computers as a whole; or, look into a different Internet package with better connectivity. Finally, games played on a PC are often much more complicated than console alternatives. When you have to use several keys at once, and click the mouse, or tap the screen just to do one job, you start to wish you were playing on a EXAMPLE 1. A tragic story happened in southern Russia, where a 14-year-old boy killed his father with a sledgehammer. This reportedly happened after the boy’s parents had taken away his keyboard as punishment after he spent a week playing computer games. â€Å"At around 1am (local time) on April 12, the suspect dealt his sleeping father at least two blows on the head with a sledgehammer,† the region’s investigative committee said, according to News. com. au. â€Å"The man died on the spot from a head injury. † After killing his father, the boy’s uninjured but frightened mother gave the keyboard back. The boy then continued to play computer games for several more hours before he fell asleep, at which point the mother contacted relatives who called the authorities. Russian law dictates that the 14-year-old boy is eligible to be charged for murder. 2. Chinese online gamer dies after three-day session Online gaming is becoming increasingly popular with young Chinese internet users A Chinese man has died after a three-day online gaming session in which he did not sleep and barely ate, reports say. The man reportedly lost consciousness at an internet cafe on the outskirts of the Chinese capital, Beijing. He was rushed to a clinic but could not be revived, the Beijing Times said. The 30-year-old man, who was not identified, was said to have spent more than 10,000 yuan ($1,500; ?928) on gaming in the month before his death. China has more than 450 million internet users, and online games – which can involve multiple users role-playing in a virtual world – are particularly popular with young men. Researchers say tens of millions of Chinese people – many of them teenagers – are addicted to internet gaming, despite curbs introduced by the authorities aimed at tackling the problem. Similar deaths have occurred in other nations. In 2005 a 28-year-old man died in South Korea after playing online games for 50 hours without a break.

Hormones and Behaviors

Duncan Hormones play an important role in bodily functions of the living human as well as mental functions that allow us to create, write, act, or in general be productive humans. When any of our hormones or the glands that produce them are not in sync or producing properly, we may not be able to think at all, or we may be so emotionally dysfunctional that we become nonproductive. Thus hormones may have a tremendous effect on our human behavior.Our endocrine system is made up of any glands that secrete chemicals directly into our bloodstream or lymph system. These chemical are called hormones, which are carried through the body, having an effect both on internal activities and visible behavior (Icon, Mutterer, 2012). Hormones are like transmitters, activating other cells in the body. Melatonin is one such hormone that is released by the pineal gland in response to daily variations in light. The Pineal gland is a well developed light sensitive organ once considered useless, an unneces sary leftover of evolution, that we now know regulates body withy's and sleep cycles.Melatonin levels may have a great deal to do with our sleeping patterns as levels in the bloodstream rise at dusk, peak around midnight, and fall again as morning approaches. Thus according to our brain, it is bedtime when melatonin levels rise and get up time when those levels decrease. This is a natural response accordingly to our environment, thus melatonin is the hormone that regulates our natural sleep patterns according to the sun coming up and the sun going down.This is one element in support of how related not only mind and body ay be, but also its relation to our planet or living environment. Other hormones affecting human behavior is a set called corrections, which have the Job of regulating salt balance in the body. When there is a deficiency of certain corrections, a powerful craving for salt can be evoked. Corrections play an important role in helping our body adjust to stress, they are also a secondary source of sex hormones. Corrections are produced by the adrenal glands, located under the back of the rib cage, on the kidneys.It is the outer â€Å"bark† of the adrenal glands that produce the set of corrections. An over secretion of corrections can cause woman to grow a beard, or premature puberty. One androgen, or male hormone, is testosterone, which is secreted in small supply by the adrenal gland however, for males, most testosterone comes from the testes. This particular sex hormone can regulate sexual potency, breast growth, voice changes, heart problems, liver damage, stunted growth, Just to name a few, when off balance one way or the other.

The Methods of Selection in the Recruitment Process Assignment

The Methods of Selection in the Recruitment Process - Assignment Example If the organization does not come to terms with these methods of selection, it hires other companies which search for the required talent. However, what is needed here is an understanding that shall reach upon the premise of hiring people who are skilled enough to deliver the goods as and when required. Recruitment process is important to understand within an organization because it is the basis of resource provision that employers look forward to having (Bierman, 2002). The recruitment process paves the way for the growth and development domains of an organization since it finds the ways and means through which success will be deciphered in a proper way. What is even more significant is the way under which the human resources management department deals with the process of recruitment that shall only make the entire process understandable to the publics who are outside the domains of the organization (Noe, 2009). These publics would want to know what kind of recruitment strategies a re in place within the organization and where the hiring regimes are coming into full action. Since these publics have a fair amount of say within the working methodologies, it is only natural to think of the discussion of stakeholders because these stakeholders have one or the other stake within the organization. Either the shares are being looked after by these stakeholders or they have invested a fair bit under the aegis of the organization (Laser, 1994). The need is to realize where the stakeholders deem the company in a positive way and what kind of optimism they have in mind regarding the chosen organization. In the same light, the organizational discourse must find a way through which the recruitment processes are handled in an ethical and moral way. If the hiring and firing domains are settled properly by the selection methodologies which are in place, then this should mean that the organization is doing something right for the new hires. This would be translated in the form of people joining its fore and aspiring to become a part of it in the coming times as well (Mckinney, 1991). However, many organizations are not well equipped to tackle all these issues and end up being at the receiving end of the public wrath for a number of reasons. The recruitment processes within China and the United Kingdom are important to understand because it outlines the basis of properly utilizing the resources within the domains of an organization. If the recruitment process manifests time delays and similar issues, then it would mean that there are serious problems that exist within the fore of hiring individuals within an organizational setting. Therefore the role of the human resources management department

How the economy works Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

How the economy works - Essay Example s to be made very carefully and after a lot of thought as it is important to understand that every choice made will also mean forfeiting another choice. This question can be answered only after proper analysis of the resources that are available in an economy. The one thing that is also kept in mind is the true cost. This is one aspect of the choice that economist are interested in. as mentioned earlier while making a choice the chances of forfeiting another choice are always possible. Hence economists generally use the concept of opportunity cost which allows them to analyze the value that must be sacrificed or given up (Stonebraker, 2008). This question deals with the determining how to use the factors of production to produce the product. In countries that are highly industrialized use of capital goods like computers, machinery etc. In countries which are lesser developed the production is normally got through physical labor. This question mainly deals with from whom the goods are being produced. This is mainly who will receive the produced products. In a country as developed as the United States, it depends a lot on the income of the people and the prices of goods and services. While talking of economic stability the one variable which always catches attention is Unemployment. After which the prices levels is the next topic of interest. The levels of unemployment and the economic stability of a country are directly related. With the decreasing levels of employment the levels the economy of the country will also be affected. Hence to maintain the economic stability of a country it is essential to keep the levels of employment stable, or increasing however no reduction should be permitted. Also the price levels for goods and services directly affect the countries economy and thus need to be kept at constant levels. Countries which have prices of goods increasing drastically signify inflation within the country (Brozen, 1958). Thus to maintain the economic

Lyndon Johnson and the Roots of Contemporary Conservatism Essay

Lyndon Johnson and the Roots of Contemporary Conservatism - Essay Example Thie essay "Lyndon Johnson and the Roots of Contemporary Conservatism" discusses the views of Tom Wicker who has dealt with a very strong aspect of the presidency. The main aspects that have been discussed are the fact that even though a President has given the country his best and provided the country with a chance to improve to great extents. In this case, the main focus has been on a President who has given America a lot of benefits and improvements – Lyndon Johnson. Lyndon Johnson has some very conservative views and an undying need to improve and better himself and provide America with all the possible benefits that he can bring to the country. There has been a clear and straight forward approach to the general issues of societies like the unemployment, urban poverty and much more. The main theme of this essay has been to provide readers with a view of the amount of work done by a president yet the disgrace they received.I completely agree with the views of Tom Wicker and I feel that people who give the country the best of their efforts and help the country progress through the macroeconomic factors. Yet the names of these people and the amount of work and efforts of these individuals have been going waste and unrecognized. Wicker has touched on a very sensitive issue which is never brought up by any one due to the number of questions that have been unanswered for years. I completely agree with this point. There is a very strong need for people to be recognized for their work.

SSSR Press Release Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

SSSR Press Release - Essay Example The company was formed in 1996 to protect the scenic, aesthetic, recreational and wildlife values of the Santa Rita Mountains through education and outreach, including protection of the Santa Ritas from degradation due to mining activities. The SSSR always help people to protect the environment. They have successful cases previously. For example, in 2005 Augusta Resource, the SSSR found that Rosemont ranch was bought for a small mining company to dump their tailings and waste on public lands. They managed to find the manager to make the company stop damaging the environment. They achieved good result in this case that can make the organization more reliable. Tucson being at the mountains of Arizona will be affected since mining will be done in the mountains where water sources are found. This is the reason why the residents of South of Tucson condemn it in the strongest means possible. Residents of Tucson will experience economic downfall due to devastating effects of Rosemont mine. The supporters of the mining Augusta indicates that Rosemont mine has a good public relation with the residents of Tucson since the mining will be beneficial to the future generations of southern Arizona and improvement in economic stability of the area. The strong ethos makes the people to believe in the SSSR. For example, Tucson residents are known for their farming activities among other agricultural produce like rearing of livestock.. Within the Arizona region, there are wild animals that can make people have a look at the wonderful wildlife.

The Treatment of the Working Classes, the Poor and the Uneducated Research Paper

The Treatment of the Working Classes, the Poor and the Uneducated - Research Paper Example The novel explores various themes such as ambition, social isolation, science, psychological balance, and moral responsibility among others (Shelley 23). However, one of the key themes explored in Shelly's book is the treatment of the working classes, the poor and the uneducated in the society. Thus, this paper will analyze how the treatment of working class, the poor and the uneducated theme is brought out in Mary Shelley’s novel, Frankenstein. According to Shelley (25), the monster represents the oppressed, the poor people in the society, and how the working class is brutalized in the modern industry. There is a clear evidence of class struggle in Shelley's novel, and that is why she uses this theme to criticize the society and expose some of the economic, social, and corruption problems people experienced during that time and their effects on society. One of the key causes of the English revolution in 1640 and the French Revolution in 1789 was the rise of wealth and strengt h of the bourgeoisie, which resulted in capitalism. King Charles sided with the upper class and the noble people in the society during the English revolution, but not the common ones. ... This is also applies to the upper and working classes. The upper class people are highly educated and have a lot of wealth while the working class people are poor and uneducated. For this reason, the bourgeoisie use their wealth and power to exploit the working class in order to get profit. According to Shelley (45), the monster argues that he is gentle and docile to his king and lord; thus, demands that Victor should perform his part, as well. This means that the bourgeoisie should give back to the working class since what they are giving back is not enough. It also reveals a separation of class in the society since it contributes to the idea of social inequality. For instance, during the French revolution only the noble people became bishops and army officers and were able to hold real power while the working class who consisted of 95% of the France population could only become peasants. In Shelley’s novel, the De Lacey’s family represented the common people who were poor and powerless, but virtuous. Additionally, in the novel, Frankenstein did not create an evil creature, but rather the cruel treatment the monster received from the world made him evil. Nearly every creature in Mary’s novel assumes that the monster is destructive and dangerous due to its appearance, yet it is open and warm-hearted. Despite his attempts to show his noble intentions, the monster is rejected and assaulted by the entire society and families. Thus, this rejection and violence that he experiences convinces him that man is a barbaric being; hence, becoming a cruel creature and vows to take revenge on society and his creator. Moreover, after the monster observed De Lacey’s family through a hole in the wall, he

Comparing Life Experience Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Comparing Life Experience - Research Paper Example Upon the meeting of the blind person, all this thoughts get dispelled. Carver ensures the blind man becomes humanized as a human being so the present stereotypes’ get broken. Everyday Use is the short story about a mother, Ms. Johnson and her daughters Dee and Maggie. Maggie got burnt badly by a fire. She still has the scars all over the arms and legs. Dee, her sister is healthy and has no problems. Whereas the world rejected Maggie, Dee was always the favorite. Every day use I about how one’s culture and heritage should become applied daily so as not to forget the traditions. Dee is ashamed of her families’ heritage, and the narrator in the Cathedral is uncomfortable with the blind person presence in their home. From the stories, we are able to see that, those with the problems are not the people with disabilities rather the people treated as superior to the disabled people. In Cathedral, Carver demonstrates that salvation lies in the contacts of humans and the connection. In the introduction of the story, it is evident that the narrator (also the husband) was indeed lonely. He had a poor relationship with his wife as he questioned if he loved her, since he did not want to invite Robert (the blind man) her friend whom she truly cared for. The wife told the narrator; that if he loved her, he would do that for him, and if not, okay (Carver 1). The narrator felt insecure by Robert, especially since she had told Robert about him and they had never met. He also had no close relationships with other people. The narrator is jealous of his wife’s first husband, smokes marijuana daily and is envious of her wife’s friendship with the blind man. Just like in the cathedral, in the short story Everyday Use, Maggie is nervous because of the presence of her sister in the home. According to the author, Maggie is nervous about her sister Dee, because of her burn scars. She feels inferior to her sister because she has had many opportunities th at she did not have. Mama says, â€Å"Maggie will still be nervous until her sister leaves† (Walker 14). In the narrative, Alice Walker, personifies the different ways of culture and heritage in Dee, the mother, and Maggie. Each one of them has different qualities and philosophies of life. Nevertheless, contrary to the cathedral, Mama and Maggie are both proud and happy of her life. Mama is happy of the life she is living. Dee, on the other hand, is like the narrator in the Cathedral; she is not happy and thinks that she is in control of her life. She believes in her own self and does not to get associated with her sister and mother. The mother explains how she always wanted the best things and how she always got what she wanted. The narrator writes, â€Å"At sixteen, she had her own style and knew what style was† (Walker 20). This gets seen in the story when she wants the churn top and the dasher and also the old quilts that the mother had promised to give Maggie. Mag gie, on the other hand, has accepted life as it is and lives in the uneducated world with happiness in her heart and not material possessions. In the short story, the only names mentioned were of Robert’s wife who died (Beulah) and Robert. The narrator refers to himself as I and is not associated with a name together with the wife. This is dehumanizing to both the husband and wife. The husband feels that he gets stuck in

Role of Entrepreneurship and Innovation Essay Example for Free

Role of Entrepreneurship and Innovation Essay They have employed existing means of production differently, more appropriately, more adventurously. They have â€Å"carried out new combinations†. They are entrepreneurs† – Joseph Schumpeter (Lumsdaine and Binks, 2007). Entrepreneurship is a procedure through which individuals identify opportunities (problems that need to be solved or unmet needs) in the market place, allocate resources, initiate change by being innovative and creative and create value through solutions. One of the Factors of Production to produce goods or services is Enterprise with Land, Labour and Capital; an entrepreneur combines all other factors of production by enterprise, which is actually problem solving, risk taking and creativity, to come up with innovative products or services. â€Å"Innovation is the ability to see change as an opportunity not a threat†. (Steve Jobs,2010). It is not necessary that Innovation is something completely new which is stated as ‘Discrete Change’ by Joseph Schumpeter, it can also be a ‘Gradual Change’, that is a product or service which is better than what was there before (Lumsdaine and Binks, 2007). It can be called a process by which an Idea or invention is translated into a product or service for which people will pay and perceive it as being new. Entrepreneurship is incomplete without Innovation as Steve Jobs said, â€Å"Innovation is the specific instrument of entrepreneurship. The act that endows resources with a new capacity to create wealth. †. (Steve Jobs,2010). Economic Development can be defined as the development of economic wealth for the well being of a country’s inhabitants. It implies progressive changes in the socio-economic structure of an economy, change in the distribution pattern of income, adoption of new technologies, creation of jobs, transition from agro-based to industry-based economy and general improvements in living standards. According to Lumsdaine and Binks,â€Å"In the context of entrepreneurship, it is creativity that leads to Innovation, that is development of new products and processes which when innovated replace the traditional and previous versions. Creativity leads to a greater fulfillment on an individual basis as we use our imagination to create our new horizons for what we do in our lives. By imagining what we could be and achieve, we move beyond the boundaries we have previously set for ourselves. Innovation can be seen as practical application of creativity in an organization. † (Lumsdaine and Binks, 2007) So Innovation is actually the product of Creativity and Problem Solving with the help of Entrepreneurship. â€Å"Entrepreneurs are the catalysts that spur the economy with their innovations and technological change† – Joseph Schumpeter (Lumsdaine and Binks, 2007). Entrepreneurship leads to Economic Change and economic development through creative destruction. When the Entrepreneurs sell their Idea, the Idea is a solution to a problem and is a need that has not been met before which means there was a gap in the market for that product or service which he innovated, consumers buy it because there is a demand for it which the entrepreneur realized and innovated it and as more and more consumers buy it, more will be the improvement in Living Standards of the inhabitants of the Economy; in conclusion, entrepreneurs showing their creativity solve a problem and innovate a product or service which benefits the economic development of an economy directly and indirectly. Wal-Mart Stores is a relevant example for understanding the relationship between Entrepreneurship, Innovation and Economic Development, the company which is ranked no. 18 in the Forbes List of â€Å"Global 2000 Leading Companies 2011†. Samuel Moore Walton is one of the most successful entrepreneurs who made it possible in less than half a century. He founded the Company in 1962 when he opened the company’s first discount store in Rogers, Arkansas, USA after watching a market gap of Discount stores in his State of Arkansas. He just figured out a problem that people in the urban areas have to pay higher prices at stores in the city center since the country side is far away for the consumers to go there and the stores used to take an advantage of that and charge higher prices. Sam Walton imagined using his creativity, what if there is a discount store in the city which buys everything in bulk from the country side and uses its own transport for delivery of good to the store, would the consumers buy from there at lower prices rather than going to other stores in the city with higher prices. He just used his creativity to solve the problem and Innovated world’s first and most successful Discount Store, Wal-Mart. Sam Walton, in his autobiography, said, â€Å"If you think about it from the point of view of the customer, you want everything: a wide assortment of quality merchandise; the lowest possible prices; guaranteed satisfaction; friendly, knowledgeable service; convenient hours; and a pleasant shopping experience. You love it when a store exceeds your expectations, and you hate it when a store inconveniences you, gives you a hard time, or pretends you’re invisible. (2011). When he opened his first Wal-Mart store, no one imagined he was introducing a retailing formula that within a generation would impact the lives of millions of people. Wal-Mart Stores grew gradually but at a good pace and then reached to the position it has achieved today. In 1975, it employed only 7500 employees, 125 stores with Sales of $340 billion. In 1983, The Forbes Magazine ranked it no. 1 General retailer for the eighth year straight. In 1991, Wal-mart became an international supermarket chain with more than 1200 stores and more than 200,000 employees. Wal-Mart launched Sam’s clubs which was also a success and reached 1995 stores, 239 supercentres, 433 Sam’s Clubs and 276 international stores with 675,000 employees by the end of 1995. By 1997, Wal-Mart Stores had entered into another part of the world, which is China and was taking Environmental friendly measures and also became the largest private employer in the US with 680,000 employees and additional 115,000 international employees serving 90 million customers per week worldwide. By the end of the 1990s, Wal-Mart had opened stores in Korea and Germany and had become the largest private employer of the World with total of 1,140,000 employees. By 2004, Wal-Mart had been declared as the third most admirable company in the US by Fortune Magazine, ranked among the companies with â€Å"Top 25 Diversity Recruitment Programs† and was awarded the â€Å"Corporate Patriotism Award†. In 2005, The Wal-Mart Foundation started working much actively and donated $18 million for US hurricane relief efforts and the Company employed more than 1. million employees and owned 3800 Stores in the US and 3800 International Stores with Annual Sales of $312. 4 billion and existed in 16 countries. Today, Wal-Mart Stores owns 9826 stores in 28 countries with 2. 1 million employees and serves more than 176 million customers annually. Walmart Foundation now is too active and donates largely in relief efforts and for causes; it has separate programs for different fields like Health, Disable people and Education (Wal-mart Stores, 2011). Sam Walton said it best, â€Å"If we work together, we’ll lower the cost of living for everyone†¦we’ll give the world an opportunity to see what it’s like to save and have a better life. † (2011). This was the innovation mainly in his Idea of Discount Stores to save people’s money, to help them live better was the goal that Sam Walton envisioned when he opened the doors to the first Walmart (2011). If his vision was to help people live better which means improving their living standards, then there is no doubt that how much Wal-Mart would have contributed towards positive economic development just because of Sam Walton’s entrepreneurship and Innovation. A company that employs 2. 1 million people cannot be questioned for its contribution towards economic development. Since it generated a lot of employment opportunities the economy was benefited in the form of expenditure on goods and services by the employees; moreover, all the employees working there earn a salary from Wal-Mart and then spend it on goods and services in their own economies. Expenditures like education and health increase the demand of goods and services in the economy leading to economic growth. This has lead to increase in the economy’s PPF outwards as A. D of the economy has increased. On the basis of the figures provided in the 2010’s Annual Report of Wal-Mart Stores and the World Bank’s statistics of the US’s GDP of the year 2010, Wal-Mart Stores had contributed approximately 2. 8 percent to the Annual GDP of the US in 2010. (Yahoo Finance and World Bank, 2011). This Calculation can be supported by the Statistics provided by the website of Wall-Mart Stores, that in 2010, Wal-Mart’s sales were $307. billion in U. S. retail sales as the  next five largest U. S. retailers combined  sales of $324. 5 billion: Kroger ($78. 3 billion), Target ($65. 8 billion), Walgreen ($61. 2 billion), Home Depot ($60. 1 billion) and Costco ($58. 9 billion). In 2005, almost half (46%) of Americans lived within 5 miles of a Walmart or Sams Club, and 88% lived within 15 miles of a Walmart of Sams Club which also shows the contribution of Wal-Mart towards U. S. ’s economy and in 2011, every $45 dollars spent in the U. S. economy, almost $1 was spent on a purchase at a Walmart. (Wal-mart Stores, 2011). Therefore, the presence of Wal-mart in the US economy generated income not only for the employees but for the economy as a whole. Among all of the great scholars of entrepreneurship, Joseph Schumpeter is the only one who has explained properly the relationship between Entrepreneurship, Innovation and Economic Development. According to Lumsdaine and Binks (2007), â€Å"The crucial contribution made by Joseph Schumpeter in The theory of Economic Development (ref. 2. 1) was to highlight the entrepreneur’s role as the catalyst for economic development. This contribution connects entrepreneurship, creativity and economic development. To understand the actual and potential impact of entrepreneurship, it is important to consider his analysis. Schumpeter portrayed any economy as a collection of enterprises and business where each represented a particular combination of production factors in the form of machines, people, land, premises, finance, and so on, in some sense every business relied for its market upon the successful activities of all others. This interdependence through customer demand meant that changes in the nature or level of economic activity would be caused only when a new combination of factors of production was introduced. The diverse operations of Walmart did not only benefit the US but has also contributed to economic development of under-developed and developed countries of Africa. According to Brown and Sander (2007), large multinational supermarket chains are rapidly expanding in developed and developing economies. These supermarket chains tend to import agriculture products from developing and under-developed economies; this is due to the advantage developing and under developed countries offer them in quality and prices. Which in a way is good for the development of the under developed and developing countries. According to Brown and Sander (2007), â€Å"In the continent of Africa, where small farmers account for both 90 per cent of agricultural production and 73 per cent of Africa’s rural poor, access to valuable international markets could play a crucial role in wider poverty reduction†, most Multinational Supermarket chains buy Fruits and Vegetables from small holder farmers of Sub-Saharan Africa which also increases exports of these poor countries resulting in higher economic development of their country by improvement in their living standards. According to Stokk (2007), â€Å"Supply chain development initiated by supermarkets can help farmers escape the low productivity trap. Supermarkets face a short run cost, but gradually benefit from the agricultural skill upgrading in terms of increased market share. Our result suggests that when farmers do not meet the required standards, supermarkets have an incentive to invest in farm assistance programs that improve the productivity of local suppliers. Supermarket expansion not only affects farmers in the supply chain, but also has consequences for the rest of the food retail sector. Traditional retailers face increased competition and potential loss of market share, but may benefit from foreign supermarkets through spillover effects of the latest retail techniques. † (2009). Higher productivity and latest retail techniques do affect the economic development to a great extent. In the same article Stokk said, â€Å"The value of local purchases made to operate the Wal-Mart stores and facilities such as tilities and business services. The value of goods sold by local manufacturers to Wal-Mart, The types of Wal-Mart facilities present within the MSA (Metropolitan Statistical Area), while the price effects from retail stores can be significant, other facilities such as distribution centers can also have positive economic impacts. † In conclusion, this essay has clearly analysed the relationship between entrepreneurship, innovation and economic development and has also briefly explain the role Creativity and Problem Solving play in this relationship. In this relationship between entrepreneurship, innovation and economic development, Innovation is the base, since economic development is influenced by entrepreneurship through Innovation. However, it is not necessary that all entrepreneurs benefit the economic development; it can only have a positive implication on economic development if there is innovation. And for innovation to effect the economic development positively with entrepreneurship, the entrepreneur should be creative in problem solving. Creativity is a foundation of this relationship and problem solving is an essential tool for this relationship to come over difficulties and carry on with the flow from entrepreneurship to positive economic development through innovation. However, long term economic development cannot lack of innovation and entrepreneurship, simultaneously, as tools of innovation, creativity and problem solving play a vital role in the whole process. Word Count: 1651 words without referencing.

Advantages Of Open Tendering Construction Essay

Advantages Of Open Tendering Construction Essay Open tendering is a one-stage bidding process, where all interested and responding to contract notice will be invited to submit a tender.   The contract notice states where to obtain tender documents and the last date when tenders will be accepted.  Open tender is open to public all the interested firms can apply for the contract. Advantages of open tendering No favourism (everyone can apply for the tender) High competition in pricing ( client will take good prize) New firms can enter into the market Increased employment opportunities ( new firms comes) New experience (new technology) Helps contractors to grow Contractors get new client Disadvantages of open tendering Selected contractor might not suit the project (ex: no experience) Inexperienced firms can enter into the market Unknown firms can enter into the markets Waste of estimating time High aggregate cost for tender (ex: electricity, transport) High evaluation time (because we have to check all the documents) Unrealistic competition Arbitrations 2.0.2 Selective tendering A process of competitive tendering for award of the contract for construction whereby the owner selects the constructors who are invited to tender to the exclusion of others, as in the process of open tendering. It means the client selects the contractor from limited list invitation to tender is made by client to the contractor by a letter. In selective tendering short listing can be done by, Invitation ICTAD category Prequalification (financial) Post qualification Negotiation In selective tendering there can be two stages, One stage selective tendering Two stage selective tendering One stage selective tendering Client advertise for contractor to apply for short listing Short list the contractors who are considered suitable to do the work approved list is maintained by the client. (competition) Two stage selective tendering Single stage for competition, double stage for competition plus early start of work at site. Contractors experience/ practical knowledge is useful at the design stage First stage Inviting for tender Inform about 2 stage tender Pre select the contractor (a simple BOQ) Contractors give proposal for the design Second stage Negotiate the rates with the contractor for 2nd time Advantages of Selective tender Well known contractor Good quality Less aggregate cost for tender Less evaluation time Disadvantages of Selective tender Favourism Less price competition Cartel tendering New firms cannot enter in to the market Regular updating is necessary 2.1 Factors which used by client to formulate the select list 2.1.1 Information of the company Information of the company is very important when the clients are giving the tenders. Because they want to know how much they can trust that company. Reason is some companies are new to the industry some are very old to the Industry. When companies are new to industry, the risk is more to the client. Because when companies are new to the industry most of the companies are not continue their services. But when we talking about old companies they are continue their services. Because of that clients like to handover there tender to the old companies than the new companies. 2.1.2 Awards achievements When the companies are continuing their work some departments presenting awards for best company of the yearetc. When companies are offering awards clients like to handover their tender to these companies. Because theres no any risk to the client. 2.1.3 Successfully complete projects Client giving a contract to a contractor it is essential to know the successfully completed projects. Because some companies even not complete a single project even. So that is developing their trust on the contractor. 2.1.4 Work in progress The work they doing during they applying for the tender is more important for client to handover their tender for the contractor. That is a benchmark for the company to take a tender. 2.1.5 ICTAD grading and relevant documentary evidence In construction field ICTAD grading is more important than the other qualifications to get a contract or a tender. ICTAD grading is one that saying about the company which is good in construction work that company has evidence to prove that, their company is good in work completing projects. So ICTAD grading is more useful to client to give a tender to a company. 2.1.6 Financial information Financial side of a company is very useful for client whether give the tender or not to the company. Because some of the companies are new to the industry. So their financial side is not stronger than the other old companies. So the financial information of a company is more useful for client. 2.1.7 Experience as a main contractor Experience as a main contractor is more essential for the client to build up a relationship or to give the tender to the contractor. Because to take the tender for their company all the construction companies of the country apply for it. But some are new some are very much of experience companies. Actually client not takes any responsibility to hand over the tender to new company. Because they still new to the industry they are not take any experience as a main contractors, but old companies they are full fill with lack of experience as a main contractor. So client likes to give their tender to an experience company. So experience as a main contractor is very important bench mark to get a tender from client. 2.2 Typical clients 2.2.1 Banks Analysis of the client internal needs, new product which impact on the internal environment of the client, management of the public, opened, or closed tender for suppliers of required solution, evaluation of tender, the draft of basic documents in terms of functional specification of solution and its pricing structure, origination of the documentation. 2.2.2 Merchant Analysis of merchants (client) internal needs, target group specification with full consideration of credit card products, Suggestion of adequate partner for credit card acceptance, invitation and management of the public, opened, or closed tender for suppliers of required solution evaluation of the tender. 2.2.3 Government agency Analysis of clients internal needs in consideration of specifics of public service, analysis of impact of new solutions on internal environment of the client, invitation and management of the public tender for suppliers of required solution evaluation of tender. 2.3 Tender process There are three parties of tender process. There are Client Consultant Contractor 2.3.1Client A client is a person (individual or organization) which carry out a project or a work himself or another person or an organization. It means client is anyone having construction or building work carried out as part of their business. Without a client we cant a construction project. He is the man who authorized the project. Client has some kinds of duties to do. Check competence and resources of all appointees. Allow sufficient time and resources for all stages. Be satisfied that each designer and contractor appointed has adequate training, knowledge, experience and resources for the work to be performed. Allow sufficient time for each stage of the project, from concept onwards. Provide a copy of the safety and health plan prepared by the PSDP to every person tendering for the project. Provide information relating to the health and safety file to the CDM coordinator. Before the construction work starts client have to see whether the welfare facilities are on the site. 2.3.2 Consultant A consultant is an individual who possesses special knowledge or skills and provide that expertise to a client for a fee. It means a construction consultant someone who is hired to assess and advise on structural issues. Consultant helps all sort of businesses find an implement solution to wide variety problems. They usually have several years of experience in construction field. They are familiar with all kind of construction companies. Commonly the work as a consulting firms but sometimes they work for legal firms sometimes they work as an individual contractor. Construction consultants do many different things. Some assist companies with administration tasks; they make sure everything is running smoothly, and on time, so that the site owner and managers can concentrate on other business matters. A construction consultant may be hired to keep a project running on budget, and handle any problems that may appear. This may also mean working as an in-between for the owner of the site and the construction crew. Another duty which consultant has to do is judicial work. It means some times when continuing the work it might be failed. Then the consultant has to give the reason why the construction process is failed. Sometimes the problem must be small, such as weakness of the labours or sometimes the problem with the structure which design. Another duty of a consultant is if the building or the project fails consultant has to inform the client why it is failed, what the reasons for failed etc. 2.3.3 Contractor A contractor is a person who in the course or furtherance of a business, carries out or manages construction work. It means in construction he is the man who responsible day to day happening in the site. Actually we can name the contractor as general contractor of the site. The contractor is employed by the client. Imagine ones contractor got the tender first thing is he have to visit the site to get better understanding about the project. Secondly the contractor makes the prizing list which called as estimate. A duty which contractor has to do is manage the work. It is the most important thing in the site. It means he has to plan the day today work like what are the risks we have to achieve, when we going to complete this project, what are the needs of the labours including health safety, protecting the public while doing the projectà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦etc. as a contractor if he plans the work in time we can keep the relationship between client contractor. Another responsibility which contractor needs to do is providing information trains them for the rules regulations. Its includes site introduction, risks, sit rulesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦etc. 2.4 Contractual documentation required for tendering bid bond form of tender construction program day work schedule power of attorney prequalification document Quality and safety proceeding Copy of ICTAD,NCASL registration 2.4.1 Bid bond On most major construction projects, work is awarded through a process known as bidding. A bid bond is important to show proof of guarantee to the project owner that you can obey with the bid contract and also that you can accomplish the job as laid out in the contract. A bid bond is a guarantee that you provide to the project owner stating that you have the capability to take on and implement the project once you are selected during the bidding process. Normally, project owners do not know if a contractor is financially stable or has the necessary resources to take on a project 2.4.2 how bid bond works During bidding, various contractors estimate what the job will cost to complete. They submit this price to the owner in the form of a bid. The lowest bidder will be awarded a contract for the job. If this bidder realizes they made a mistake with their bid, or refuses to sign the contract for any reason, the bonding company will ensure the owner suffers no financial loss. This usually means that the bonding company will pay the owner the difference between the lowest and next lowest bids. Sometimes, the bonding company may sue the contractor to recover these costs. The possibility of lawsuits depends on the terms of the bond. 2.4.3 Bid bond Requirements Under the  Mille act, which is still the standard today, all bidders are required to submit bid bonds on any federal project. Many private firms have copied this trend to protect themselves from risk during the bid process. Getting bond is very important if you want your company to become competitive in construction filed. 2.4.4 Form of tender A tender form is issued to a supplier during the Invitation to Tender process. Each Tender Form helps the team to collect information about potential suppliers so that they can appoint one or more preferred suppliers to the business. As each Tender Form is released to the suppliers, the progress is tracked in the Tender Register. To save time creating each Tender Form, a Tender Template is used. 2.4.5 Construction program A work method statement, sometimes referred to as a safe work method statement or a safe work procedure, is a part of a workplace safety plan. It is predominately used in construction to describe a document that gives specific instructions on how to safely perform a work related task, or operate a piece of plant or equipment. In many countries it is law to have work method statements, or similar, in place to advice employees and contractors on how to perform work related tasks safely. The statement is generally used as part of a safety induction and then referred to as required throughout a workplace. The construction program envelop the following, purpose scope

Database Management System In An Organization

Database Management System In An Organization A DBMS Database Management System is a commercial software program used to control, manipulate and maintain the Database by enabling users to access, store, organize, modify, retrieve, secure and provide integrity of data in a database. A DBMS accepts request from users or applications and instructs the operating system to transfer the appropriate data as shown in the diagram below. Figure 1: database management (Source: http://broncu.blogspot.com/2010/04/dbms-mysql.html) Wikipedia (2011) defines Database Management System as a set of computer programs that controls the creation, maintenance, and the use of a database. It allows organizations to place control of database development in the hands of database administrators (DBAs) and other specialists. A DBMS is a system software package that helps the use of integrated collection of data records and files known as databases. It allows different user application programs to easily access the same database. DBMSs may use any of a variety of database models, such as the network model or relational model. In large systems, a DBMS allows users and other software to store and retrieve data in a structured way. Instead of having to write computer programs to extract information, user can ask simple questions in a query language. Thus, many DBMS packages provide Fourth-generation programming language (4GLs) and other application development features. It helps to specify the logical organization for a database and access and use the information within a database. It provides facilities for controlling data access, enforcing data integrity, managing concurrency, and restoring the database from backups. A DBMS also provides the ability to logically present database information to users. Examples: Microsoft Access, My SQL, Microsoft SQL Server, Oracle and FileMaker Pro are all examples of database management systems. (Wikipedia, 2011). Microsoft Access: Microsoft Office Access, previously known as Microsoft Access, is a relational database management system from Microsoft that combines the relational Microsoft jet database Engine with a graphical user interface and software-development tools. It is a member of the Microsoft Office suite of applications, included in the Professional and higher editions or sold separately. In mid-May 2010, the current version Microsoft Access 2010 was released by Microsoft in Office 2010; Microsoft Office Access 2007 was the prior version. My SQL: MySQL is a relational database management system that runs as a server providing multi-user access to a number of databases. It is named after developer Michael Widenius daughter, my. The SQL phrase stands for Structured Query Language. Microsoft SQL Server: Microsoft SQL Server is a relational model database server produced by Microsoft. Its primary query languages are T-SQL and ANSI S SQL. Oracle: The Oracle Database (commonly referred to as Oracle RDBMS or simply as Oracle) is an object-relational database management system (ORDBMS), produced and marketed by Oracle Corporation. FileMaker Pro: FileMaker Pro is a cross-platform relational database application from FileMaker Inc., formerly Claris, a subsidiary of Apple Inc. It integrates a database engine with a GUI-based interface, allowing users to modify the database by dragging new elements into layouts, screens, or forms. Advantages Singh (2009) illustrates advantages and disadvantages of DBMS. A true DBMS offers several advantages over file processing. The principal advantages of a DBMS are the followings: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Flexibility: Because programs and data are independent, programs do not have to be modified when types of unrelated data are added to or deleted from the database, or when physical storage changes. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Fast response to information requests: Because data are integrated into a single database, complex requests can be handled much more rapidly then if the data were located in separate, non-integrated files. In many businesses, faster response means better customer service. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Multiple access: Database software allows data to be accessed in a variety of ways (such as through various key fields) and often, by using several programming languages (both 3GL and nonprocedural 4GL programs). à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Lower user training costs: Users often find it easier to learn such systems and training costs may be reduced. Also, the total time taken to process requests may be shorter, which would increase user productivity. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Less storage: Theoretically, all occurrences of data items need be stored only once, thereby eliminating the storage of redundant data. System developers and database designers often use data normalization to minimize data redundancy. Warehouse of information, where large data can be stored. Systematic storage meaning data can be stored in the form of tables. Change of schema meaning it is not platform dependent tables can be edited to add new ones without hampering the applications. No language dependence meaning use of various languages on various platforms. Table joins meaning data can be in two or more tables and can be put into one table this enables easy retrieval of data. Data security meaning DBMS secures all your data. The data independence and efficient access of data Easy in data administration or data management. Provides concurrent access, recovers the data from the crashes. Disadvantages A database system generally provides on-line access to the database for many users. In contrast, a conventional system is often designed to meet a specific need and therefore generally provides access to only a small number of users. Because of the larger number of users accessing the data when a database is used, the enterprise may involve additional risks as compared to a conventional data processing system in the following areas. Confidentiality, privacy and security. Data quality. Data integrity. Enterprise vulnerability may be higher. The cost of using DBMS. Confidentiality, Privacy and Security When information is centralised and is made available to users from remote locations, the possibilities of abuse are often more than in a conventional data processing system. To reduce the chances of unauthorised users accessing sensitive information, it is necessary to take technical, administrative and, possibly, legal measures. Most databases store valuable information that must be protected against deliberate trespass and destruction. Data Quality Since the database is accessible to users remotely, adequate controls are needed to control users updating data and to control data quality. With increased number of users accessing data directly, there are enormous opportunities for users to damage the data. Unless there are suitable controls, the data quality may be compromised. Data Integrity Since a large number of users could be using a database concurrently, technical safeguards are necessary to ensure that the data remain correct during operation. The main threat to data integrity comes from several different users attempting to update the same data at the same time. The database therefore needs to be protected against inadvertent changes by the users. Enterprise Vulnerability Centralising all data of an enterprise in one database may mean that the database becomes an indispensible resource. The survival of the enterprise may depend on reliable information being available from its database. The enterprise therefore becomes vulnerable to the destruction of the database or to unauthorised modification of the database. The Cost of using a DBMS Conventional data processing systems are typically designed to run a number of well-defined, pre-planned processes. Such systems are often tuned to run efficiently for the processes that they were designed for. Although the conventional systems are usually fairly inflexible in that new applications may be difficult to implement and/or expensive to run, they are usually very efficient for the applications they are designed for. The database approach on the other hand provides a flexible alternative where new applications can be developed relatively inexpensively. The flexible approach is not without its costs and one of these costs is the additional cost of running applications that the conventional system was designed for. Using standardised software is almost always less machine efficient than specialised software. Cost of hardware and software meaning having to upgrade the hardware used for file based system it is very costly. Cost of data conversion meaning its costly to convert data of data files into database and have to hire database and system designers. Cost of staff training meaning organization has to be aid a lot of amount for the training of staff to run dms. Database damage meaning all data stored into a single file if database is damaged due to electric failure or database is corrupted on a storage media meaning all valuable data may be lost forever. It also takes a lot of time and effort to get DBMS started. Benefits of a Database Management System in an organization As discuss by the Ezinearticles (2011), organizations often times find themselves in a dilemma on how they can effectively serve the needs of their members. At the same time, they also enter a situation wherein there is difficulty in handling data, given the sheer volume of information. More often than not, the results of these instances are not anything but desirable; confusion, chaos, mismanagement, lost confidence by members, etc. To solve these problems, organizations turn to information technology (IT) experts for answers. With many years of experience in coming up with solutions for businesses and other entities, IT professionals have what it takes to come up with an effective data management and accreditation system that will be used by organizations. There must also be enhanced accessibility to the said system, which means that members from other locations can still gain entry into the system, regardless of elements such as time and geography. Investing on the services of IT consultants is, however, not like buying something from a store. It entails huge sums of money to come up with a good data management and accreditation system for an organization, aside from engaging the professional services of IT experts. Fortunately, IT experts can help minimize the cost through the creation of a database system based on existing resources being held by the organization. Investing on the services of IT experts and having a good data and accreditation management system may seem to be too costly, but the long-term benefits are worthy to be seen. By having a good database system, it will be much easier for organizations to deal with their members because of enhanced access to information. The placement of additional pieces of information can be done better if there is a good data management system. Having a good data and accreditation management system empowers members of an organization. This is possible because they have the ability to gain the necessary information about things that matter to them as members. They conduction of business with the organizations intervention is made faster and more efficient if a good data management system is in place. There is no reason for organizations to hesitate when it comes to investing on a good data and accreditation management system. The long-term benefits of having one are far greater than the costs, and will be very helpful to the organization and their members in the long run. Improved strategic use of corporate data. Reduced complexity of the organizations information systems environment. Reduced data redundancy and inconsistency. Enhanced data integrity. Application-data independence. Improved security. Reduced application development and maintenance costs. Improved flexibility of information systems. Increased access and availability of data and information. (Blurtit, 2011). Prospects in DBMS and Career Opportunities The work of a database administrator (DBA) varies according to the nature of the employing organisation and the level of responsibility associated with the post. The work may be pure maintenance or it may also involve specialising in database development. Prospects, the UKs official career website (2011) states that jobs available in this field are: Senior Database Architect Database Architect design and builds database structure and objects that best support operational and analytics application. Tests and debug physical database objects for performance and troubleshooting. * Design and implement optimal star and snowflake schema in the database * Communicate and collaborate with team members and management on the designed database structures and schemas * Write and present eloquently with the appropriate audience perspective in mind * Support troubleshooting of production issues of existing application as warranted * Participate in collaborative discussions with team members to monitor progress against enhancement queue and bug resolution. * Stay proactive in identifying potential risks/issues due to the overall application design and make recommendations. Database Administrator This position requires a Top Secret Security Clearance. This position will support a US Air Force Contract. The successful candidate will be responsible for planning, coordinating and administering computerized databases, including base definition, structure, documentation, long and short range requirements, operational guidelines, protection and logical-physical database design. Formulates and monitors policies, procedures and standards relating to database management. Identifies, evaluates and recommends relevant COTS software tools. Collaborate with software engineers, security administration, computer operations, network management and system administration to ensure quality and integrity of databases, application software and data. Responsible for performance monitoring, database. Database Architect Specialist Database Architect design and builds database structure and objects that best support operational and analytics application. Tests and debug physical database objects for performance and troubleshooting. * Design and implement optimal star and snowflake schema in the database * Communicate and collaborate with team members and management on the designed database structures and schemas * Write and present eloquently with the appropriate audience perspective in mind * Support troubleshooting of production issues of existing application as warranted * Participate in collaborative discussions with team members to monitor progress against enhancement queue and bug resolution. * Stay proactive in identifying potential risks/issues due to the overall application design and make recommendations. Database Administration Consultant Evaluates new database technologies and tools, sets database system and programming standards, applies database technology to business problems and manages the development and production database environments with emphasis on security, availability and performance. Provides database services in compliance with all audit and regulatory requirements. The ideal candidate must be experienced in the management of Oracle E-Business 11.5.10.2 including installation, upgrade, patching, cloning, backup and recovery, monitoring, tuning, security, and definition of procedures for custom development. The ideal candidate must be experienced in the implementation and management of Oracle E-Business 11.5.10.2 as configured for the Oracle Massive Availability Architecture. Senior Database Engineer Responsible for requirements analysis, software development and installation, integration, evaluation, enhancement, maintenance, testing, and problem diagnosis and resolution. Qualifications: Bachelors degree with ten (10) years experience as a Database Engineer in developing relational database software and experience with one or more relational database products. Preferred Additional Skills: Possess organizational and management skills, along with the ability to respond to crises objectively. Understanding of the current database management system releases. Conclusion The document that we have put together is a group assignment that was done by four individuals. Some of the problems that we faced as a group are that, we couldnt meet due to our clashing schedules; others are busy with other obligations. We would like to say that we tried to produce the best group work that we could, hopefully learnt from this experience to better ourselves for our future endeavors.

Comparing Margaret Atwoods The Handmaids Tale and Michael Radfords F

Margaret Atwood’s depiction of the future in The Handmaid's Tale is extremely bleak and forlorn; this oppressive atmosphere has been created by the development of an independent nation - Gilead - inside the U.S, which is governed by a totalitarian fundamentalist Christian sect. This dystopian text is the brainchild of a series of experimental social ideas which have given birth to a science-fiction novel, which satirises mainly the folly of human characteristics rather than the misuse of technology. Another related text is 1984 the film which was directed by Michael Radford who also envisioned the future as being extremely dark and oppressive; as it depicted in his film adaptation of 1984 the novel, by George Orwell. Several language and film techniques were employed by Margaret Atwood and Radford, such as metaphorical imagery, satire and irony, so that it was possible for the audience to delve deep into the protagonist's mind and understand the world they live in from their perspective. The atmosphere of oppression in The Handmaid's Tale effectively shapes the society of Gilead, as Offred metaphorically describes the life of each individual as being similar to "a rat in a maze †¦ free to go anywhere, as long as it stays inside the maze", the maze representing the laws and boundaries of Gilead. Language is used to convey individual opinions and express emotions and feelings; because of this the government of Gilead have attempted to eradicate it, so no revolutionary literature may arouse the mind and create any doubt concerning the integrity of the Gilead and its laws. "Words like free" are "considered too dangerous" because these words encourage thoughts of freedom and individuality which are prohibited since Gilead reli... ...aphorically represent the hope of freedom. We are shown through the metaphorical imagery of the shattering of the pink coral, that this hope is impossible. Ultimately both â€Å"1984† and â€Å"The Handmaids Tale† fulfil the purpose of ominious prophetic texts that have portrayed a dystopian future, a future filled with oppression, corruption and misogyny in the case of The Handmaid's Tale. The governments of Gilead and Oceania have succeeded in brainwashing their citizens by isolating them and attempting to abolish language which would make it impossible for any outcry to be heard or even expressed. Both Atwood and Radford created these texts during times of peril, with the intention of having them serve as ominous reminders of what would become of society if any doctrine was to be enforced by a totalitarian body which withheld all authority without being challenged.